In bladder cancer patients treated preoperatively with ipilimumab, CD4+ and CD8+ ICOShi T cells were increased compared with baseline, and patients with clinical benefit at week 24 had persistent elevation in the percentage of CD4+ ICOShi T cells; only 1/7patients with progressive disease or death at week 24 had persistent elevation in the percentage of CD4+ ICOShi T cells. By IHC, we observed a significant influx of CD8+ T cells into tumor following ipilimumab. It was interesting to note evidence of induction/potentiation of T cell memory but not naive T cells in the tumor biopsies examined by flow cytometry. Taken together with the data of Galon, et al regarding the prognostic value of CD3+, CD8+ and CD45RO+ cells in relation to survival in colorectal cancer, our data suggest a role for ipilimumab in inducing and/or potentiating such effector elements in tumor, eventually translating into the clinical benefits seen with this agent. This is in addition to a potential therapeutic predictive role for these biomarkers that can be assessed in tumor biopsies obtained at baseline or early on-treatment. Low baseline tumor infiltrating CD20+ B cells showed a trend towards association with worse clinical response. While not statistically significant, this trend is interesting in view of the report by DiLillo, et al that B cell depletion in mice enhanced B16 melanoma outgrowth. These authors suggested that B cells are required for optimal CD4+ and CD8+ T cell tumor immunity, noting that effector-memory and IFNc– or TNFa– secreting CD4+ and CD8+ T cell induction was significantly impaired in B cell-depleted mice with tumors. In addition, tumor Ag-specific CD8+ T cell proliferation was impaired in tumorbearing mice lacking B cells. Slingluff et al, studying immune cells infiltrating the microenvironment of melanoma metastases found that B cells are correlated with increased survival. These and our observations argue for further research into the role of B cells in the tumor microenvironment and the potential supportive role of B cells for optimal CD4+ and CD8+ T cell tumor immunity. They also support further investigations into the therapeutic predictive value of in-tumor B cells, possibly as part of a predictive immune signature. Acute respiratory infections are classified as upper respiratory tract infections or lower respiratory tract infections . URTIs include the common cold, laryngitis, pharyngitis/tonsillitis, acute rhinitis, acute rhinosinusitis and acute otitis media . URTIs in children are a frequent illness accounting for a high proportion of doctor office visits. A national survey report from the UK showed the consultation rates of URTIs were 3,103 and 1,002 per 10,000 person years at risk in children aged 0–4 and 5–15 years, respectively. A proliferation of clinical guidelines published in peer-reviewed BAY-60-7550 journals has been seen due to the high morbidity of URTIs. It is important that these guidelines provide appropriate guidance for the treatment of URTIs.