In conclusion, we have demonstrated that real-time Bi-PAP can be used for the rapid and accurate quantification of somatic mutations. This flexible approach could be SB 218078 widely used for somatic mutations in clinical settings before digital PCR becomes commonly accessible and economically affordable. Studies using a variety of animals ranging from rodents to rhesus monkeys have shown increased neuroapoptosis during postnatal brain development after exposure to intravenous or inhaled anesthetic agents. General anesthetic -mediated apoptosis in the developing brain is correlated with an elevation of PLX 647 dihydrochloride plasma S100b, a neurodegenerative biomarker in blood. Furthermore, some studies suggested that the anesthetic-mediated apoptosis in the developing brain may be associated with persistent learning deficits and social behavior dysfunction, although such an association could not be confirmed by other studies. Most importantly, multiple exposures to general anesthetics in children under the age of 4 may be related to learning disabilities, including reading, language and math. The mechanisms of general anesthetic-mediated apoptosis in the developing brain are still not clear, although many hypotheses have been proposed, including the disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis, activation of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors and inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors and associated impairment of synpatogenesis, activation of P75 neurotrophin receptors, regulation of cell cycle, and others.There is increasing evidence suggesting that GAs may cause apoptosis and cognitive dysfunction by aggravating neuroinflammation, although surgery itself may cause cognitive dysfunction via increased inflammation. General anesthetics, however, may not all affect neuroapoptosis in the developing brain or subsequent cognitive function with the same potency. This has important clinical implications for our pediatric patients. Among the commonly used inhalational general anesthetics, isoflurane is the most widely reported to induce neurodegeneration in the developing brain and subsequent cognitive dysfunction in several animal models. Similarly, the intravenous general anesthetic, propofol, at clinically relevant concentrations and durations, has also been shown to cause significant apoptosis in the developing brain, and associated cognitive dysfunction.