In conclusion, we report that the pleotropic effects of metformin include alteration of the entero-hepatic recirculation of bile acids, modulation of gut microbiota and changes in gut hormones, especially GLP-1. These findings suggest that the gastrointestinal tract is an important target organ of metformin and are consistent with the evidence that oral formulations of metformin are more effective than intravenous administration. The tight glycaemic control required to attenuate chronic complications in type 1 diabetes mellitus often requires numerous daily injections of bolus insulin administered by subcutaneous needle injection, insulin pen and catheters connected to insulin pumps. These methods are, however, inconvenient and often lead to poor compliance, a major factor negating the quality of life of diabetic patients. In addition, studies suggest that bolus insulin injections cause adverse effects such as hyperinsulinaemia, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, weight gain and cardiovascular complications. The key to strict glycaemic control with use of exogenous insulin lies in the creation of delivery methods that mimic the physiology of insulin secretion. The desire to deliver insulin conveniently and effectively has led to investigations of delivery systems such as oral, nasal, buccal, pulmonary, rectal, ocular and transdermal routes. The skin which has increasingly become a route of the delivery for a wide range of drugs has generated a great deal of interest. The route is an appealing alternative for insulin as this may offer patient compliance and controlled release over time by avoiding degradation in the gastrointestinal tract or first-pass liver effects. On the other hand, transdermal delivery is limited by the low permeability of skin caused mainly by stratum corneum, the skin’s outermost layer. However, the permeability can be increased by various techniques such as the use of chemical enhancers, electrical enhancers via iontophoresis or electroporation and ultrasonic enhancers. Reports suggest that pectin not only delivers drugs to the colonic region of the gastrointestinal tract, but also sustains drug release in vitro. More interestingly, Musabayane et al., succeeded in sustaining plasma insulin concentrations in diabetic rats using orally administered, insulinloaded amidated pectin hydrogel beads. Building off these previous studies, we sought to develop a pectin insulin-containing dermal patch formulation which can transport insulin across the skin and sustain controlled release into the bloodstream of streptozotocin -induced diabetic rats. The study was, therefore, designed to establish whether application of pectin insulin-containing dermal patches sustain controlled release of insulin into the bloodstream of STZ-induced diabetic rats with concomitant alleviation of some diabetic symptoms. The success of insulin delivery via this route can be assessed by the ability to lower blood glucose concentrations. In addition to LY2157299 700874-72-2 reduced insulin responsiveness in muscle in diabetes, recent evidence has emphasized the critical role of insulin in hepatic glucose homeostasis. Insulin exerts metabolic and cellular effects mediated.